The School Curriculum and Its ’ Influence on Teacher Motivation in Curriculum Implementation in Kenya

A review of empirical studies on teacher motivation indicates decreasing levels of motivation among secondary school teachers ultimately leading to minimal achievements of the projected Kenya’s Vision 2030. This study examined the school curriculum as a determinant of secondary school teacher motivation in Kenya in curriculum implementation. The research adopted a survey study design, adopting mixed methods research approach with an aim of fortifying and converging both quantitative and qualitative data. The respondents were sampled from 46 secondary schools located in Nyeri and Kirinyaga counties of Kenya. The findings of this study inform curriculum planners, education leadership and policy makers on the school curriculum as a core determinant of teacher motivation in secondary schools that influence curriculum implementation in Kenya.


Background to the Study
The education sector has experienced a radical paradigm shift in Kenya and the world at large. Governments, curriculum planners, parents and the students themselves are concerned with quality service delivery from our teachers. The Kenya's Vision 2030 envisages providing a 'globally competitive quality education, training and research to her citizens for development and enhanced individual well-being. This is through among others; to raise the quality and relevance of education. Education has the purpose of catalyzing the transformation of society for its development. It involves the art and act in which people are prepared to create new working habits and values for their changing lives in a dynamic environment (UNESCO, 2004). Among other functions, education increases productivity of societies and attendant political, economic and social institutions (Digolo, 2006: pg15).
The understanding is that every citizen has a fundamental right to education. Implicit in this is the fact that relevant and quality education should be provided to the people; at least the basic of it. The fundamental cycle of formal instruction provides learners with a firm foundation of knowledge for further learning and development (Koech, 1999, pg 271); which embraces the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning. The aspirations of the nation are expressed in the national goals of education (Republic of Kenya, 2006: x).

The Context of Education in Kenya
Education is a major concern of human societies. It transcends the mere acquisition of knowledge and skills hence a development of an individual who is transformed with the ability to understand and manipulate this world (Otunga, Odeo & Barasa, 2011).This conceptualization premises that the child is exposed to three dimensions to help them acquire education: formal dimension known to be planned, organized and systematic, often associated with institutions such as schools.
The second one is informal dimension entrenched as life long process with attendant agents of socialization including the mass media, peer groups and religious institutions. Thirdly, the non formal dimension is a framework of learning outside the school though organized and planned. It is these dimensions that help to impart the knowledge, skills and values to the learner (Sifuna & Otiende, 2004).
Education has the potential to equip people with the skills, attitudes and norms needed to hold governments to account, to challenge autocracy and to assess policies that affect their lives (Glaeser et al., 2006). At an individual level, education is a crucial determinant of whether people have the capabilities -the literacy, the confidence, and the attitudes that they need to participate in society. As a concrete example, when poor and marginalized people are educated, they are often more likely to participate in meetings of local political bodies and devolved bodies managing education, health and water resources (Alsop & Kurey, 2005).
The Government of Kenya has undertaken many reforms addressed to the education sector. These reforms target both the overall goals of the national Economic Recovery Strategy, as set out by the Government in its policy documents and international commitments. These documents include the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Education for All (EFA), The Vision 2030 and The Session Paper No.1 of 2005 among others. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of numerical and time-bound targets that express key elements of human development. They include halving income-poverty and hunger; achieving universal primary education and gender equality; reducing under-five mortality by two-thirds and maternal mortality by three quarters; reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS; and halving the proportion of people without access to safe water. These targets are to be achieved by 2015, from their level in 1990 (UNESCO, 2006).
The point of reference is that education focuses on the acquisition of knowledge, skills as well as provision of life-long learning and the provision of a holistic, quality education and training that promotes the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains of a learner. These virtues are articulated in the national goals of education which the school curriculum interprets and implement. This study is an analysis of the school curriculum as a determinant of secondary school teachers' motivation in curriculum implementation in Kenya in achievement of these broad goals of education and especially on critical determinants of their motivation. To achieve the expected learning proficiencies, content is outlined in segments such as preprimary, primary and secondary education. The secondary curriculum in Kenya is a unified one (Barasa, 2005). It was first created in 1967 to replace or eliminate the differences between the former African, Asian and European school systems (Sifuna & Otiende, 1992). Secondary education therefore enables the learners to acquire proficiency in both academic and some applied subjects. The ultimate purpose of this segment is to fulfill the objective of providing equal opportunities to have exposure to essential education for their future life's choices. More specifically, secondary education should promote harmonious co-existence among the people of Kenya; develop the individual mentally, socially, morally, physically and spiritually; enhance an understanding and respect for own and other people's cultures and their place in contemporary society; enhance understanding and appreciation of interrelationships among nations; promote positive environmental and health practices; build a firm foundation for further education and training; develop ability for inquiry, critical thinking and rational judgment; develop into a responsible and socially well adjusted person; promote acceptance and respect for all persons; enhance enjoyment in learning and finally, identify individual talents and develop them.
To achieve the broad long-term and short-term statements of intended performance, it becomes important for the teacher to play a cardinal role at transmitting a curriculum that promotes holistic development and individual excellence…with a capacity for developing too the domains in an individual: cognitive, psychomotor and affective as well as spiritual, social and cultural aspects (Otunga, 2010). The country may not achieve this if teachers are not well motivated and committed to the realization of these objectives.
The most critical finding that emerges from this study is that very sizeable proportions of secondary school teachers, particularly in Nyeri and Kirinyaga counties of Kenya, have low levels of job satisfaction and are poorly motivated. Many learners are, therefore, not being taught properly and are not receiving the acceptable education1. The unavoidable conclusion is that most schooling systems are faced with what amounts to a teacher motivation crisis, which has far reaching implications for the education Millennium Development Goals for basic education and for development as a whole, and the achievement of Kenya's Vision 2030. The study therefore explores the key determinants of teacher motivation in secondary schools in Kenya and delineates the school curriculum.
In view of these aspirations, the education sector has had a myriad of challenges that directly impacts on the teacher. Notably, snail pace reforms in the school curriculum, high teaching loads, high handed school administrations, unwarranted transfers, low salaries, school strikes and indisciplined students do contribute to low level of teacher motivations. Teachers are almost losing the battle to check on student discipline since the Children's Act of 2010 insists that the rights of the child must be met. The backdrop is that cases of indiscipline are on the rise. Several schools in Nyeri and Kirinyaga counties have had boycotts, strikes and even tragedies in 2010 (Gachigua, 2005).

Teacher Motivation and the Implementation of the School Curriculum
Teacher motivation is an important field of research, especially in countries where teacher retention and quality have become prominent concerns. Individuals are motivated by many factors to pursue a teaching career, including the desire for personal growth and continued learning, to have a positive impact on others' lives and contribute to society, and to attain stable, secure employment. This in turn impacts on curriculum implementation.
Teacher motivation research has conceptualized the reasons individuals choose to become teachers as intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Sinclair, 2008), and altruistic factors (Chong & Low, 2009). Intrinsic factors include desire for personal growth and extrinsic factors include material benefits and job security.
According to Nzuve (1999) motivation is the individual's internal process that energizes, directs and sustains behaviour. Okumbe (1998) see it as '… that process which starts with a physiological to psychological deficiency or need that activates behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. This implies that motivation is an activity that managers do to employees in an attempt to boost their productivity in an organization. Motivated employees exert extra effort to perform a given task than those who are less motivated. Intrinsic factors are generally described in terms of a desire to work with children and contribute to society (Chong & Low, 2009). Furthermore, studies have suggested teacher motivation is related to professional commitment, efficacy, organizational citizenship and participation in professional development (Morgan, Kitching, & O'Leary, 2007).
Teacher motivation has also been examined from particular theoretical perspectives. For example, Riley (2009) in a study focusing on attachment and student-teacher relationships suggests that individuals may enter the teaching profession "partly motivated by an unconscious desire for corrective emotional experiences, through the formation of new attachments to their students" (p. 628). Such unconscious motivations to teach may be important in teacher motivation, although challenging to investigate.
In Kenya, a number of studies have been undertaken on teacher motivation. The study by Karugu (1980) show that teachers are motivated to stay in job if physical socio economic and security dimensions associated with conditions of work is satisfactory. To curb what he called' dissatisfactions among teachers' then there must be provisions of proper salaries, good working conditions, food supervision, teaching materials and overtime payments. Mumo (2000) used a similar model to study technical school teachers in Nairobi and found out that 63% expresses slight satisfaction with their overall job.
In a study on Performance Improvement in Kenya Public Service, Marangu (2004) note: "…motivation is an aspect of management that requires human behavior to be manipulated in order to harmonize an individual employee's goals to this of the organization". Therefore we argue that well motivated employees are those who work along clearly defined goals and who take action which will result in these goals being met. Employees who manage to motivate themselves seek, find and carry out work that satisfies their needs. However, majority of employees need to be motivated by the management through pay, praise, promotion, transfer, training and development in order to improve their performance. Teachers are employees who need to be well motivated to improve their performance.

The Implementation of the School Curriculum
Curriculum Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the curriculum programme and those who are charged to deliver it, implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). It involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people hence seen as a process of professional development and growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance. Implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals. Implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication between administrators, teachers educators, and the board of governors as in Kenya (Kindiki, 2009). Curriculum implementation is thus seen as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and workshops have to be organized for professional development. Unfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by experts from the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and professional interest and motivation. This research therefore argues that teachers must be well motivated to be able to implement the curriculum in Kenya's schools so that the overall goals of educations are met.

Survey Design
This study adopted the survey research design with a mix of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to gather more insights into the teacher motivation and their effect on curriculum implementation. Surveys are conducted in case of descriptive research studies. Survey-type research studies usually have larger. Thus, the survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time (Yauch & Steudel, 2003, p. 476;Jenkins, 2001, p. 215;Creswell, Shope, Plano Clark, & Green, 2006). Surveys are concerned with describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that either exist or existed. The researcher does not manipulate the variable or arrange for events to happen. Surveys are only concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held, processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are primarily concerned with the present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to current conditions. Thus, in surveys, variables that exist or have already occurred are selected and observed (Kothari, 2004).
This study justifies the use of survey as a distinctive research methodology because the survey analyzed and evaluated the many aspects that determine teacher motivation in secondary schools in Kenya. The research survey allowed comprehensive use of data collection tools such as the questionnaire and the interview. The data collected was quantifiable and for the information was easily open ended information was easily codified for analysis and quantification.

DATA INTERPRETATION ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Data was collected using survey questionnaires from 460 secondary school teachers and interview schedules for 46 principals and 92 heads of departments. The respondents were found in Nyeri and Kirinyaga counties of Kenya. The data collected was analyzed thematically and descriptively using descriptive statistics. Not only did the triangulation of the qualitative and quantitative data secure the validity of their study, but the complementarity of the two datasets produced a more thorough comprehension of the determinants of teacher motivation in question. Kothari (2004) says: "…Processing of the data involved transcription, editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis" p.122. The analysis of data entailed the several sub-processes.

The School Curriculum and its Influence on Teacher Motivation in Curriculum Implementation
The research sought to find out the influence of the curriculum on teacher motivation. To achieve this research designed the following research question: What is the influence of the school curriculum on teacher motivation in secondary schools in Kenya? This was generated from the hypothesis: H01-There is no significant relationship between the school curriculum and secondary school teacher motivation. An analysis of teachers' workload revealed that 56.4% claimed of having a high workload for teaching (N= 248; SD=80.44). Hours of work, larger class sizes, more subjects, and constantly changing curricula are cited as major de-motivators in many countries. What is expected from teachers (the 'social contract') is not pitched at a realistic level in many countries given material rewards, workloads, and work and living environments.
Large class sizes and heavy workloads in relation to pay (the effort-price of work) also make teachers resistant to the introduction of new teaching methodologies and other innovations. High workload limit on teacher preparation for the lessons as attested by 72.6% of the teachers. Only a paltry 0.9% of the teachers said that they have inadequate load and conclusively affirm that majority of the teachers are constrained by huge classroom teaching loads. Item 4 sought to describe the teacher pedagogical practices in the classroom. Successful teaching practices by the teachers can make a difference in children's learning outcomes in all teaching contexts. Aside from mastery of the contents of the subjects, teachers need to effectively plan and employ a wide range of teaching strategies appropriate to children's characteristics as well in a variety of classroom settings. Effective and challenging classroom practices could also ensure quality education for children (Chandra, 2004).
For this to happen, there is need for emphasize on the ongoing professional development of teachers to enable them to be at the forefront not only on pedagogical techniques but also on school curriculum and communications technologies. The implementation of suitable pedagogical techniques such as individualized learning programmes, peer tutoring, independent study and small group teaching will help children find learning meaningful and in turn they will profit from schooling in any teaching circumstance. Data reveals that there is relatively a high classroom pedagogical practice at 60.2 %; N=265) thus a positive trend among the teachers. Item 5 under the section argued that teachers needed to attend workshops, symposium and seminars on curriculum implementation to make them effective in its delivery to the learners. It concurs that 38.0% felt that great need to attend such functions that promote teacher sensitization on best curriculum practices. Teachers need to be effective curriculum planners. This is exemplified in writing of proper schemes of work, wring of lesson plans and keeping of updated classroom records. Table 8 gives an overview of the mean scores of all the variables of the curriculum: curriculum content; assessment practices knowledge skills, learning-centered approach, 21 st Century skills and adequate ICT skills. The mean on curriculum resources is 3.9161 (SD=0.458) on the 5 point Likert-scale indicates that respondents agreed that teachers use all the proper methods in teaching especially on the use of teaching resources. Furthermore, teachers also possess characteristics that allow them in delivering an effective teaching in their lecture. The mean on learning-centered approach is 4.0178 on 5 point Likert-scale and the mean on 21 st century skills is 3.8673 indicate that majority of the respondents are not too sure on some of the teaching methods suggested in the questionnaire could increase their level of understanding. Knowledge on ICT among the teachers was found to be wanting. This is manifested by the fact that 44.3% of the teachers and 52.7% of the principals and heads of departments exhibited low levels of ICT knowledge.
Although not exhaustive, the range of ICT that have been used in the delivery of education to improve access, teaching, learning, and administration includes: Electric Board, Audio Cassette, and Radio for Interactive Radio Instructions (IRI), Video/TV-Learning, Computer, Integrated ICT infrastructure and Support Application Systems (SAS). The major challenge in respect to this component is limited digital equipment at virtually all levels of education. While the average access rate is one computer to 15 students in most of the developed countries, the access rate in Kenya is approximately one computer to 36 students. In addition, it is noted in the Education Policy Framework (EPF) that there are a number of challenges concerning access and use of ICT in Kenya. These include high levels of poverty that hinder access to ICT facilities, limited rural electrification and frequent power disruptions. Where there is electricity, hindrances to application of ICT include high costs of Internet provision, costs associated with digital equipment, inadequate infrastructure and support.
The policy makes a commitment for provision of digital equipment to educational institutions, particularly colleges, secondary and primary schools. Whereas most secondary schools in Kenya have some computer equipment, only a small fraction is equipped with basic ICT infrastructure. In most cases equipment of schools with ICT infrastructure has been through initiatives supported by the parents, government, development agencies and the private sector. The impact of ICTs on the education goals is still inconclusive, reported observations include rapid expansion of knowledge, improved examination outcomes, enhanced communication and technical efficiency, as well as greater decentralization in the delivery of education services. It is not in doubt, however, that ICT has the potential to play a more powerful role in increasing resources and improving the environment for learning. ICTs can also play a role in preparing students to acquire skills, competencies and socio skills that are fundamental for competing in the emerging global "knowledge" economy as envisaged in the Kenya's Vision 2030.

Summary
This objective explored the role of the school curriculum on teacher motivation in curriculum implementation. The curriculum plays an important role in determining the motivational level of the teachers. Hours of work, larger class sizes, more subjects, and constantly changing curricula are cited as major de-motivators in the research. Large class sizes and heavy workloads in relation to pay (the effort-price of work) also make teachers resistant to the introduction of new teaching methodologies and other innovations.
An analysis of teachers' workload revealed that 56.4% claimed of having a high workload for teaching (N= 248;SD=80.44). High workload limited on teacher preparation for the lessons as attested by 72.6% of the teachers. The pedagogical practices by the teachers can make a difference in children's learning outcomes in all teaching contexts. Aside from mastery of the contents of the subjects, teachers needed to effectively plan and employ a wide range of teaching strategies appropriate to learners' characteristics as well in a variety of classroom settings.
Effective and challenging classroom practices could also ensure quality education. The implementation of suitable pedagogical techniques such as individualized learning programmes, peer tutoring, independent study and small group teaching were found to help children find learning meaningful and in turn they will profit from schooling in any teaching circumstance. Data revealed that there is relatively a high classroom pedagogical practice at 60.2 %; N=265) thus a positive trend among the teachers. Teachers need to be effective curriculum planners. This was exemplified in writing of proper schemes of work, writing of lesson plans and keeping of updated classroom records. Furthermore, teachers also possess characteristics that allow them in delivering an effective teaching in their lecture. 67% of the teachers had good classroom practices while the 33% remaining attested to the fact that they do realize the purpose of prudent curriculum practices; only that they were reluctant to implement them. Motivation and lack of it was alleged to be the reason for their practice. ICTs skills among the teachers can also play a role in preparing students to acquire skills, competencies and socio skills that are fundamental for competing in the emerging global "knowledge" economy. This therefore affirms that the curriculum has an important function in determining the level of teacher motivation in secondary schools.

Conclusion
The study raises major concerns about the behaviour and performance of teachers, which relate directly to low levels of job satisfaction and motivation. Poor professional behaviour (lateness, absenteeism, laziness) seriously compromises schooling quality and learning outcomes. Also, weak teacher management and lack of a sense of accountability means that public school teachers often get away with under-performance and, at times, gross professional misconduct.
Lack of motivation may cause teachers to be less successful. Unreasonable demands of administrators, discouraging team spirit, neglecting rewards, financial problems are the factors related to demotivation. It should not be forgotten that every teacher is not motivated entirely by the same demands and needs. Job motivation of each employee is different from the other. Without having intrinsic motivation, lack of success is inevitable. If there are not any factors motivating teachers, the productivity will decrease dramatically. It is obvious that intrinsic rewards outweigh extrinsic ones in educator motivation.
The thesis statement of this study is captured within the epistemological dimensions of the cognitivist orientation to research. Qualitative methodological approaches stress the importance of multiple subjective realities as an important source of knowledge building. Epistemology, "the study of the nature of knowledge and justification" (Schwandt, 2001, p. 71). in this paradigm holds that knowledge gathering and truth are always partial; that researcher values, feelings, and attitudes cannot be removed from the research relationship but instead should be taken into consideration when interpreting the data as part of the knowledge construction process; and some of these approaches also argue that the researcher should establish a reciprocal relationship with research participants to promote an interactional, cooperative co-construction of meaning.
Teacher motivation is a critical field of emerging research (Richardson & Watt, 2010). While perspectives regarding intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic motives have been valuable in developing understandings about what motivates teachers and attracts individuals to the teaching profession, these perspectives focus mainly on motivating factors related to individuals. Because motivation research more broadly has begun to take account of the contexts in which individuals participate, and teaching is an inherently social occupation, there is benefit in moving beyond individual motives better to understand the complexity of teacher motivation in context. Conceptualizing teacher motivation in terms of self and self-in-context is important for understanding teacher attrition and wellbeing. Much of the teacher burnout and stress literature cites context-related reasons for teacher distress and attrition. Context must be considered when examining factors that contribute to teacher retention. Conceptualizing teacher motivation to reflect both the self and the context may help elucidate some of the nuances of motivation in the teaching profession and contribute to greater understandings about how social interactions of the self-in-context can sustain motivation throughout professional careers.

Recommendations
The research recommends the following concerning the school curriculum: Apart from the preparatory course, structured in-service training programmes should be conducted focusing on various aspects associated with pedagogic approaches to better learning, and classroom organization. All these will enhance teacher motivation as the teachers become effective in curriculum delivery.
Introducing technology and developing relationships between teachers and administration would prove helpful. There should be developed a progressive assessment framework which identifies the knowledge, skills and competencies that will be assessed at each cycle.
A review and development of print and electronic teaching and learning materials to ensure that the curriculum content addresses the skills and competencies framework, and that they are aligned with the Constitution (2010), especially with regards to equal opportunity, gender and civil rights should be emphasized. Teachers should be adequately prepared in enhancing effective pedagogical practices such as lesson planning, teaching strategies and evaluation mechanism. This should be enhanced at all curriculum levels.
The teachers' workload should be managed to an appreciable level. It calls for a relative teacher: student ratio in the classroom as this will enhance lesson preparation and effective teaching. The government should undertake a major reform of the curricula and the assessment thereof across all levels of education and training in order to align it with the Constitution and to ensure that the aspirations of Kenya Vision 2030 are met and emphasis placed on developing the repertoire of skills and competencies necessary to achieve these goals so that it bears to the demand of 21 st Century and bring curriculum relevance to the socio, political, economic and technological needs of the country.

Suggestion for Further Research
The literature reviewed and the study results reveal that there is a rich ground in dissecting the field of teacher motivation. Because motivation research more broadly has begun to take account of the contexts in which individuals participate, and teaching is an inherently social occupation, there is benefit in moving beyond individual motives better to understand the complexity of teacher motivation in context. Secondly, future studies should investigate conditions for school improvement over time because this approach to organizational analysis assumes that the development of conditions for school improvement and their subsequent effects on the quality of teaching are dynamic and changing rather than static.